Human and Divine Covenants
The bible is often referred to as the covenant between God and mankind. This biblical overarching covenant is further divided into the Old and New Covenants (i.e. Old and New Testaments) referring to what was disclosed prior to the Messiah’s arrival and thereafter. In the Old Testament, several divine covenants are found including but not limited to the Noahic, Abrahamic and Mosaic Covenants between God and His people. Two of the covenants are grant covenants where God assumes complete responsibility to bring forth a promise to His people. However, one of the covenants is conditional and is contingent upon obedience. These divine covenants are significant to the Pentateuch because they are fundamental to God’s relationship to the Isrealites.
The Pentateuch is made up of the first five books in the Old Testament which the Jews refer to as the Torah (Jewish Encyclopedia). “In this first five books laws, rituals, regulations, ceremonies, and calendars are included” (LaSor 3). The Pentateuch covers foundational elements concerning relationship between God and the Israelites which includes “promise, election, deliverance, covenant, law and land” (La Sor 4). The first five books of scripture are important because Genesis, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy are instructional in nature and hold a code of expectations for living as disclosed by God Himself.
God’s fulfillment and disclosure of His promises allow for Jews to see God’s word and faithfulness as He satisfies His word through many instances of blessing, deliverance and curses. The election of the Jews is a type of sanctification that makes them an exclusive election for His purpose and as an example of God’s covenant relationship to those He has chosen (Deuteronomy 7:6). The laws stand as regulatory means to guard God’s people against wrongdoing and the land promised to Abraham is an ongoing theme in the bible only fulfilled through the appearance of the prophesied Messiah (Jeremiah 31:33-34) that Christians refer to as Jesus Christ.
“A covenant is a means of establishing a relationship (not naturally existing), which is sanctioned by oath sworn in a ceremony of ratification” (LaSor 73). Technically, both divine and human covenants fall under the scope of LaSor’s definition. However, a divine covenant has supernatural factors where only God alone is able to act without the aid of mankind. Each entity, whether human or divine, is held to a standard of behavior or expectation with some kind of consequence (good or bad) that follows.
Notably, God is not held accountable for His “end of the bargain” because it is presumed that God is a good god incapable of breaking His own word (Isaiah 40:8). Both divine and human covenants hold similar characteristics which can include: promises, oaths, vows, stipulations, contingencies, disclosure, terms, conditions, sacrifices, swearing, limitations, pledges, witnesses, supernatural or visual signs, offer and acceptance. Covenants are generally binding to full force and effect as defined by its agreed upon provisions. Of distinction, a human covenant has the option of damages that can be pursued for a violation of a condition, whereas a divine covenant has no such specification because God will necessarily act and man is not in a position to repay God for lack of obedience which leaves God to punish man for not adhering to the covenant obligations.
In comparison to human covenants, divine covenants are entered upon a solicitation from God which usually includes a blessing or a curse. Whereas human covenants are entered between two individuals taking an oath before God and agreeing upon conditions, stipulations and consequences should the covenant be broken. The bible is full of covenants between the divine and human kind thereby conveying that the Israelite tradition is one of faith, expectation and vows. While contractual obligations are explicitly set forth so that anticipated course of action is clearly delineated, there is still a sense of trust that the vows taken on both sides will come to pass accordingly.
Divine Covenants
Noahic Covenant: “The Noahic Covenant came at the time of a great flood when God promised Noah, his family and all mankind subsequent them that He would never destroy the world with a flood again and gave a sign of the rainbow to remind Himself of His promise” (Busenitz 173). In the bible, Noah was born to “comfort the Israelites in labor and painful toil caused by the ground the Lord had cursed” (Genesis 5:29). Noah had favor with God (Genesis 6:8) and was chosen to build an ark to save his family and creation that God had chosen (Gen 7:1). God was putting an end to all people, because the earth was filled with violence and as a result God destroyed both mankind and the earth (Genesis 6:13).
It is noteworthy to consider that while the covenant to “never destroy the earth again” required no explicit legal action on Noah’s part, God chose a righteous man of faith to give the covenant to. In other words, God did not choose an ordinary man, but one that was familiar with His voice sufficiently to execute God’s desires of building an ark prior to the flood and conveyance of the covenant. It was during this time that not many were righteous before the Lord, and Noah was specifically chosen to carry out the “undefined” terms which preceded God’s oath to His people to never destroy them again (Genesis 7:1). The terms explicitly used by God were:
I now establish my covenant with you and with your descendants after you and with every living creature that was with you—the birds, the livestock and all the wild animals, all those that came out of the ark with you—every living creature on earth. I establish my covenant with you: Never again will all life be cut off by the waters of a flood; never again will there be a flood to destroy the earth (Genesis 9:9-11).
Further, God concluded the covenant with a supernatural sign that would remind Noah of God’s promise to humanity:
"This is the sign of the covenant I am making between me and you and every living creature with you, a covenant for all generations to come: have set my rainbow in the clouds, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and the earth. Whenever I bring clouds over the earth and the rainbow appears in the clouds, I will remember my covenant between me and you and all living creatures of every kind. Never again will the waters become a flood to destroy all life. Whenever the rainbow appears in the clouds, I will see it and remember the everlasting covenant between God and all living creatures of every kind on the earth. This is the sign of the covenant I have established between me and all life on the earth” (Genesis 9:12-17).
Abrahamic Covenant: “God promises to make Abraham a great nation, to bless him and to make his name great. The Lord makes clear to take it upon Himself alone the responsibility for fulfilling the covenant” (Essex 191). Abraham is asked to leave his country, his people and his father’s house to a land that the Lord will show him (Genesis 12:1). Abraham obliges and God appears to Abraham to bestow upon him an unconditional promise to “make Abraham the father of many nations” (Genesis 17:5). Significant to God’s promise is the fact that Abraham and his wife Sarah are beyond the point of childbearing years (Genesis 17:17) “thereby making the birth of the first-born even more remarkable” (Provan, et al. 110).
Similar to Noah’s Covenant, God chose a man of faith in Abraham. This is best demonstrated in that Abraham follows God’s instructions to leave his home to an unknown land that the Lord has promised him. Abraham’s faith, however, is challenged in the notion that he will be granted heirs when he is in no physical capacity to embark in such an endeavor. In spite of God’s promise to grant Abraham an heir, an illegitimate son is born to Sarah’s maid and Abraham. Nevertheless, God fulfills his promise of an heir through Abraham’s legitimate wife thereby executing the terms of the promise in God’s own time and under the initial terms of disclosure. It is here that the covenant is challenged in an informal sense when Abraham doubts God’s word, but God nevertheless obliges. While the covenant itself does not overtly require faith on the individual receiving a promise from God, it is an implied necessary condition since Abraham must have sufficient trust in God to act on His statements. “In other words the successful fulfillment of the promise is intrinsically linked to the response of the human will: Abraham must, after all, respond to the divine command if the promise of nationhood and blessing is to see fruition” (Mann 29).
It is significant that God did not just bind Himself to Abraham, but also to Abraham’s seed that would follow (Essex 194). God’s explicit terms to Abraham were as follows:
I will make you into a great nation and I will bless you; I will make your name great, and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse; and all peoples on earth will be blessed through you (Genesis 12:2-12:3).
It is necessary to consider that not all which was contained in this statement would come to pass during Abraham’s lifetime, but rather would be fulfilled many generations after Isaac, Abraham’s first heir. In other words, this covenant has yet to be fulfilled in its entirety because Israel “has not been restored of all things spoken by the prophets, including possession of and prosperity in the land of Canaan” (Acts 3:19-24). This final clause will not come to pass until Israel’s sons turn from their wicked ways through the deliverance of the Messiah (Acts 3:25-26),” (Essex 211).
Mosaic Covenant: “The theological context of the Mosaic Covenant is Israel’s election by grace and the redemptive context, God’s deliverance of Israel from Egypt. The covenant addressed itself to Israel alone with its divinely authoritative rules that stipulated standards of righteousness, and is the most conditional of all covenants” (Barrick 213). This covenant was set forth through Moses who stood as God’s agent to deliver God’s people from Egyptian slavery and subsequently bring forth the laws conveyed through the covenant delivered on Mt. Sinai.
It is interesting that God chooses a murder (Exodus 2:14) to deliver His people from Egypt and as the messenger of the new covenant law. Moses’ questionable background serves to contrast Noah who is portrayed as righteous in scripture without any attribution of wrongful act; Abraham who is righteous in faith, but doubts; and now Moses who kills an Egyptian and flees to save his own life (Exodus 2:10-12). Nevertheless, Moses is chosen. God brings forth His calling of Moses through a burning bush and Moses hesitantly obliges (Exodus 3). Moses brings signs of God’s omnipotence to the Israelites’ oppressors (Exodus 9:14) and eventually God’s people are rescued in an overt act of supernatural deliverance by God (Exodus 15:3-5).
Notably, it was through Moses that God continually acted in a supernatural manner so as to make His presence known among the Israelites. The presenting of the Ten Commandments was no exception when God came forth in a striking manner:
On the morning of the third day there was thunder and lightning, with a thick cloud over the mountain, and a very loud trumpet blast. Everyone in the camp trembled. Then Moses led the people out of the camp to meet with God, and they stood at the foot of the mountain. Mount Sinai was covered with smoke, because the Lord descended on it in fire. The smoke billowed up from it like smoke from a furnace, the whole mountain trembled violently (Exodus 19:16-18).
God brought forth his expectations of Israel which is referred to as the Mosaic Covenant. The covenant rendered at Mt. Sinai, Israel takes an oath to obey God and “Israel’s obligation is obedience to the covenant stipulations” (LaSor 73). The entering into a covenant with God is significant, because Israel has agreed to “serve no other God” (Exodus 20:1). The covenant itself is redemptive in nature after God delivers Israel from Egyptian bondage and the laws are designed to keep Israel under God’s protection (Exodus 20:20).
Mosaic law was supposed to give the people a sense of conscience between right and wrong so that they would not sin against their God (Deuteronomy 6:2). In having a “fear for God” through knowledge of the laws, the Israelites would uphold their covenant obligation of obedience. As a result of obedience, God’s people would also be sanctified for his use and purpose (Leviticus 15:31). In other words, the laws given to the Jews were a list of required acts which resulted in a sacred walk with God. Absent the guideline of the laws unto righteousness, Israel walked in a state of sin and required that sacrificial offerings be made to make up for those transgressions against God as defined by the law (Exodus 29:36).
The covenant law was so compelling that it even served as a point of “cohesiveness among all the sects in Israel and any digression thereof was considered damnable” (Stein 120). The laws themselves were more like policy and not written in a manner as we understand laws today because they “contain no penalty and are not carefully defined” (LaSor 75). In other words, “the legal policy was a basic statement of the kind of behavior which the covenant community is willing to sustain by force” (LaSor 75). Consequently, those who took their covenant relationship with God seriously, upheld a behavior which was consistent with what was expected of them, including punishing another for not behaving in a similar or like manner (Exodus 22:20).
The Jews were to uphold their promise to obey God’s laws subject the “ultimate price for disobedience which was a curse of exile” (LaSor 75). The exile was not just one of removal from the promised land, but also a type of exile which presumably removed the disobedient from the will of God. And once removed from the will of God the community suffered collaboratively, and engaged in discipline or consequence in a collective manner (Leviticus 24:23). Adherence to the covenant law was not necessarily a matter of establishing a personal relationship with God, but rather a means of unity as a group that God ordained as sanctified. Consequently, this covenant in comparison to the others set forth a burden on Israel and was not considered a grant covenant where God alone was responsible for fulfilling the terms and conditions of the agreement. The blessings were considerable as were the curses which came forth if the covenant was violated.
Human Covenants
Abraham/Abimelech Covenant: “Then Abraham complained to Abimalech about a well of water that Abimalech’s servants had seized” (Genesis 21: 25). A point of conflict arises between two neighbors where a water well is in dispute. In our present day the water well may not appear to have much value, but at the time of this disagreement the well stood for a point of survival since water is generally necessary for drinking and cleansing. Also, water would be indispensable in the remote location the covenant takes place. Abimalech’s servants appear to have taken over a water well that did not belong to them but Abimalech is not aware of the trespass until Abraham brings it to his attention: “I don’t know who has done this. You did not tell me, and I heard about it only today” (Genesis 21:26).
“So Abraham brought sheep and cattle and gave them to Abimalech and the two men made a treaty” (Genesis 21:27). While it is not explicitly stated, Abraham appears to have put forth material good in exchange for any perceived ownership on Abimalech’s end as an “act of good faith.” In other words, Abraham was acting with “an honest intent without taking an unfair advantage over Abimalech even when some legal technicality is not fulfilled” (Law.Com Dictionary). Abimalech was technically trespassing on Abraham’s property, but even so Abraham was “buying out” any perceived interest in the well: “Accept these seven lambs from my hand as a witness that I dug this well” (Genesis 21:30).
In putting forth a good faith effort, Abimalech agrees to the covenant and a trees is plated as a sign to the treaty: “Abraham planted a tamarisk tree and there he called upon the name of the Lord, the Eternal God” (Genesis 21:33) In terms of contractual obligation, a problem between two parties arose. The offending party was made aware of the problem. An offer to rectify the dispute was made, acceptance was rendered and a treaty resulted with a sign of a tree to mark the covenant between the two parties which had come to a mutual agreement.
Laban/Jacob Covenant: A dispute arises between in-laws. Jacob has married Laban’s daughters and fled after Laban seemingly violated two agreements which preceded the marking of land between father-in-law and son-in-law. Jacob had been tricked into working seven years to marry Rachel (the wife Jacob desired) but instead was given Leah (Laban’s oldest daughter.) As a result, Jacob had to work an additional seven years to earn a right to marry Rachel, who Jacob had bargained with Laban in the first place (Genesis 29). Laban did not uphold either agreement which resulted in Jacob leaving Laban’s property with all he had earned over the course of twenty years (six additional years working for cattle) including his two wives and children (Genesis 31:40-42).
Laban proposes the following covenant which Jacob agrees to:
The women are my daughters, the children are my children, and the flocks are my flocks. All you see is mine. Yet what can I do today about these daughters of mine, or about the children they have borne? Come now, let's make a covenant, you and I, and let it serve as a witness between us (Genesis 31:43-44).
Laban has unlawfully wronged Jacob on several occasions and is now concerned that Jacob will return to take more than is owed to him (perhaps as additional damages rightfully owed to Jacob?) In an effort to protect his property, Laban invokes God as a witness between Laban and Jacob and marks the point of division between land:
May the LORD keep watch between you and me when we are away from each other. If you mistreat my daughters or if you take any wives besides my daughters, even though no one is with us, remember that God is a witness between you and me (Genesis 31:31:49).
Laban appears to have a genuine concern for his children and grandchildren as well, however, given his past behavior of cheating Jacob, Laban seems much more concerned with division of property and possible vengeance from Jacob (although Jacob has only behaved in a civilized manner with Laban).
It is noteworthy that while God is invoked as a witness, a heap of stones is also used to symbolize the testimony of refraining from harming one another (Genesis 31:52). Additionally, both parties take an oath in the name of “the Fear of Abraham”, offer a sacrifice, and share a meal to mark their treaty (Genesis 31:53). It appears that both parties engage in the covenant to keep from future disagreements. The oath is basically putting an end to potential retribution given the tumultuous history of breaking promises that both share. In the end, Jacob ends up with what he has rightfully earned and Laban seemingly acknowledges this when he enters into the agreement with Jacob when both promise not to take what belongs to the other in the future. The end of this covenant is marked with a civil parting when Laban kisses and blesses his grandchildren and daughters before returning home (Genesis 31:55).
In this contract the reader is not told whether each party upholds the terms and conditions of their agreement. However, we do know that each willingly entered into the covenant. A problem arises, an offer is made and acceptance is rendered. There is a sign to mark the treaty, an oath is taken, a witness invoked and a sacrifice made concluding in civil parting and a meal that infers peace between the two families. God is explicitly incorporated by reference as the witness between Laban and Jacob making this human covenant one with a divine element.
Similar Covenant
“The Suzerain-Vassal Treaty in the Near East between overlord and people bears a striking resemblance to the covenant entered on Mt. Sinai” (LaSor 73). This treaty holds five provisions defined as follows:
- “Preamble: Identification of the author which is similar to God’s statement of: "Say to the Israelites, 'The LORD, the God of your fathers—the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob—has sent me to you.' This is my name forever, the name by which I am to be remembered from generation to generation” (Exodus 3:15).
- Historical Prologue: Emphasizing relationship between suzerain and vassal which included kind deeds. Similarly, God establishes His relation as deliverer of Israel from Egyptian slavery (Exodus 20:2).
- Stipulations: Basic demand for allegiance. Which is what God asked of the Israelites (Exodus 20:3).
- Provisions: Location of the texts. Israel held a similar condition wherein the tablets containing the Ten Commandments were placed in the Ark of the Covenant (Exodus 25:16).
- Curses and Blessings: Invoked upon the vassal for violating the terms and conditions of the Covenant. Similarly, invoked upon the Israelites for disobedience (Deuteronomy 28:1-68)” (LaSor 74-75).
The comparison of the Mosaic Covenant to that of the Suzerain Vassal Treaty serves as affirmation that this type of agreement continued in validity after it was first conveyed to Moses. Both covenants apparently held authoritative attributes, especially with the fifth provision where the suzerain (who was a lord but not divine) is not held liable for violating the terms and conditions of the covenant. However, the Mosaic covenant was divine in that by faith the Israelites believed it came straight from God, whereas the Eastern covenant was man made.
Distinction Between Divine and Human Covenants
The most significant distinction between divine and human covenants is the “God factor” where God enters into the contract as a party who is responsible for executing some type of action. This is a remarkable statement in that in order to enter into the covenant relationship to begin with, faith is required from the other party. In other words, an individual (or group of individuals) could not enter into a covenant with God if they did not necessarily have faith in His existence and promise. Faith then becomes a matter of necessity which is not overtly required as part of the contractual obligation.
In the Noahic, Abrahamic, and Mosaic Covenants, faith was required of the three leaders which were chosen to deliver God’s people in some manner. God did not speak to unbelieving parties who were unfamiliar with his practices and voice, but rather with chosen men who had sufficient faith to carry out God’s wishes. As unconditional covenants the Noahic and Abrahamic covenants appear to be without burden to Noah and Abraham, however, it is noteworthy to consider that each was tested in faith. Noah was asked to build an ark against societal resistance, and Abraham was asked to sacrifice his first born. Moses on the other hand was given many supernatural signs before he moved forward in God’s will to deliver the Israelites from the Egyptians. Notably, Moses was not asked to enter into the covenant on behalf of God’s people. Instead, Moses was a type of intercessor who spoke on behalf of God’s people, but each Israelite was still held accountable for their individual actions as a collective group sanctified by God.
In comparison, human covenants have similar characteristics as divine covenants where a pledge, terms and conditions are rendered. However, seemingly it appears that the human covenants in the Pentateuch arise out of some type of conflict and in an effort to resolve that conflict, people enter into agreements to avoid future damages or harm. Human covenants also contain the elements of rights and privileges, whereas the divine do not. For example, the covenant between Abraham and Abimalech contained a right to the water well and the covenant between Laban and Jacob contained a right to land. Notably, the divine covenants contained no such delineated rights and were based on God’s grace alone.
Pentateuch Covenant Theology
The Noahic, Abrahamic and Mosaic Covenants are essential to the Torah. Noah’s Covenant appears to have a message of starting over once God does way with the violence in man’s heart. The manner in which Noah’s faith is tested is important, because this is the first character in the bible that we see perform a duty for God without having any tangible evidence to support the request. Noah was asked to obey God by faith in his building of the ark and Noah’s obedience sets a tone for future compliance with God’s requests. God’s promise to never destroy the earth again is equally important, because here the reader is made aware of God’s intentions for the future to be patient and endure with the fallacy of man.
The Abrahamic Covenant teaches that Abraham was chosen as a patriarch to the Israelites and that indeed these people were God’s chosen. This is considered a grant covenant, but with a contingency of fulfillment in the Messiah which is prophesied about in the Old Testament. In other words, God is responsible for executing His own promise, but this will not occur until the return of Jesus Christ when Israel is restored what has been lost (Isaiah 59:20,21; 27:9). This covenant has yet to be fulfilled in its entirety and just like Abraham was chosen to believe by faith, so is the rest of creation asked to do the same as believers anticipate the final moment of realization.
The Mosaic Covenant is binding contractual obligation between God and His chosen people. The laws contained in the covenant were set to be an ongoing obligation for the Israelites that would never achieve an absolute state of righteousness through mere obedience. The fulfillment of this covenant stood on the foundational desire to serve one God. This allegiance results in a series of expectations that the Israelites must uphold in an effort to be blessed and simultaneously at the peril of being cursed. God’s entering into the covenant with His people implies that the Israelites were capable of obedience especially since the agreement allowed for offering of sacrifices when the laws were broken. However, the contract was continually violated which resulted in the exile of those God chose (2 Kings 17:7).
In summary, both divine and human covenants served to convey that Israel was structured in accordance to God’s will of order. The terms and conditions found in the covenants served to regulate God’s people. More importantly, God was a major factor in this lifestyle as He continually sought to engage with the Israelites. Generally, agreements seek to promote peace and stability and consistent with this expectation, the Israelites had a strict moral guideline to adhere to where they lived in peace among themselves and to this day have managed to maintain their status as God’s elect as a collaborative group. Without human or divine covenants the Israelites would not know God’s will or how to live righteously. Laws and covenant obligations allow God’s people to know what is expected of them as a group (and individually) thereby creating a sense of cohesion through their sanctified ways.
References:
Barrick, William D., “The Mosaic Covenant,” The Masters Seminary Journal 10/2 (Fall 1999) 213-232.
Busenitz, Irvin A., “Introduction to the Biblical Covenants: The Noahic Covenant and the Priestly Covenant,” The Masters Seminary Journal 10/2 (Fall 1999) 173-189.
Essex, Keith S., “The Abrahamic Covenant,” The Masters Seminary Journal 10/2 (Fall 1999) 191-212.
LaSor, W., Hubbard, D., and Bush, F., Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form and Background of the Old Testament, Second Edition (Grand Rapids: Eardmans), 1996.
Mann, T., The Book of the Torah-The Narrative Integrity of the Pentateuch, (Atlanta: John Knox Press), 1988.
Provan, I., Long, V., and Longman III, T., A Biblical History of Israel (Kentucky: John Knox Press), 2003.
Stein, R., The Method and Message of Jesus’ Teachings, (Kentucky: John Knox Press), 1994, .
Zondervan NIV Study Bible. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan), 2002.
Jewish Encyclopedia: http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/. Available as of: April 27, 2008.
Law.Com Dictionary: http://dictionary.law.com/. Available as of: April 28, 2008.